Carcinogenic pesticides and insecticides: a critical review of cancer risks and mechanisms

Abstract

Insecticides and pesticides are extensively used across the world to protect crops from pests and increase agricultural output. Still, there is mounting evidence that some of these chemicals may be carcinogenic to humans. Epidemiological research has linked increased risks of cancer, including non-Hodgkin lymphoma, leukaemia, prostate, breast, and lung cancers. The occupational and environmental exposure to certain pesticide classes, such as carbamates, organochlorines, organophosphates, and herbicides like glyphosate, can cause various types of cancer. Experimental studies have further demonstrated various carcinogenicity pathways, including genotoxicity, oxidative stress, endocrine disruption, and epigenetic modifications. Certain pesticides have been categorized as actual or potential human carcinogens by regulatory agencies, such as the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), highlighting the need to reevaluate their safety. However, there are still unanswered questions about cumulative exposures, synergistic effects, and long-term dangers in susceptible groups. In addition to highlighting mechanistic insights from toxicological studies, this review summarises the most recent data on the carcinogenic risk of commonly used herbicides and insecticides and suggests important areas that need further investigation. Regulatory policy, public health protection, and the creation of safer agricultural methods all depend on a better knowledge of the cancer risks associated with pesticides.